Complete and transparent literature reviews of dietary items in relation to cancer risk & mortality.

Fish consumption may protect against all-cause mortality among US and Asian populations, but not among European populations.

May 26, 2011 | Full text

43 articles were found which provided information about 31 different cohorts.
Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of total fish consumption against all-cause mortality (- 9% risk). The effect was strongest for the highest level of intake (≥ 3 servings/week). Stratified analysis showed that protective effects were found among US and Asian cohorts, but not among European cohorts. Inconclusive evidence was found for an association among subjects with prevalent disease. No/inconclusive evidence was found for an association between consumption of any type of fish and mortality.

Fish consumption and total cancer. No evidence for an effect at any level of consumption.

May 16, 2011 | Full text

19 articles were found which provided information about 16 different cohorts.
For total fish consumption few effects were found at any level of consumption, and the average RR's showed no evidence for any effect at all. No evidence was found for an association between total fish consumption and total cancer risk or total cancer mortality. Little data was available about fatty fish, and no data was available about lean fish intake. Hardly any data was available about other specific types of fish, and inconclusive/no evidence was found for any association.

Fish and cardiovascular disease: evidence for an effect is stronger for women, and for US/Asian populations.

May 11, 2011 | Full text

86 articles were found which provided information about 46 different cohorts.
High fish consumption possibly protects against stroke risk. Consumption of 2-3 servings fish week possibly protects against nonfatal myocardial infarction. And suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect against total CVD mortality. Inconclusive evidence was found for an association between fish consumption and total CVD risk, CHD risk, CHD mortality, and risk of heart failure. Examination of a possible dose response effect shows effects against total CVD risk, total CVD mortality, CHD risk, CHD mortality, and stroke risk were similar for intakes of 2 and ≥ 3 servings fish/week.
Stratified analysis shows, effects against CHD risk, and stroke risk are stronger for/restricted to US/Asian populations. In addition, the evidence for a protective effect against stroke risk is restricted to women. Fish possibly protects against ischemic stroke in US cohorts, while it protects against hemorrhagic stroke in Asian cohorts.
Inconclusive evidence was found for a difference in effect between fatty fish and lean fish consumption. Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of dried/salted fish against CHD risk, but this association was only examined in 2 Asian cohorts. Little is know about effects from specific types of fish.

Little evidence was found for an association between dietary fats or dietary cholesterol and cardiovascular disease.

Februari 16, 2011 | Full text

106 articles were found which provided information about 47 different cohorts.
Few effects were found. Very low consumption of saturated fat (≤ 17-20 g/day) possible increases risk of intraparenchymal hemorrage, and high consumption of processed/vegetable trans fat (≥ 5.1-5.7 g/day) possibly increases CHD risk. Both findings should be interpreted with care since no evidence was found for an association with total CVD. Suggestive evidence was found that dietary cholesterol intake increases CVD risk. This association should also be interpreted with care since no evidence was found for an association with either CHD or stroke. Inconclusive evidence was found for an association between any other type of dietary fat and any type of CVD.

Red meat consumption possibly increases mortality. No evidence was found for an association with meat fats.

September 8, 2010 | Full text

35 articles were found which provided information about 18 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an association between total meats consumption and mortality. This evidence did not change when meat consumption and vegetarianism were considered 2 different variables. Red meat consumption possibly increases mortality, but this association could not be linked to any specific type of red meats. No evidence was found for an association between poultry, specific meat items, or meat fats, and mortality.

No evidence was found for an association between consumption of meat fats and heart disease.

September 6, 2010 | Full text

44 articles were found which provided information about 23 different cohorts.
Suggestive evidence was found that total meats consumption increases CHD mortality, but this effect may be restricted to subjects being a vegetarian for > 5 years, and for deaths before age 80. Suggestive evidence was found that red meat consumption increases CHD mortality among women, and that processed meat consumption increases CHD risk. No/inconclusive evidence was found for any association with stroke or total CVD. No evidence was found for an association between consumption of poultry, pork, beef, or specific meat items and any end point. No clear evidence was found for a difference in effects between processed and red meats, and no data is available about the modifying effect of meat fats.

Little is known about the relation between meat consumption and total cancer.

August 29, 2010 | Full text

20 articles were found which provided information about 14 different cohorts.
Overall, little data was found about the different meat consumption variables in relation to cancer risk and mortality. Suggestive evidence was found for a weakly increased total cancer risk of total meats consumption (+ 10%). This evidence was found among primarily vegetarian cohorts in which no adjustments were made for any dietary items, except for alcohol. No other evidence was found for any other association.

Fruit and green leafy vegetables may protect against esophageal cancer.

August 27, 2010 | Full text

12 articles were found which provided information about 10 different cohorts.
Total fruit possibly protects against esophageal cancer risk (- 22%). Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of green (leafy) vegetables (- 35%), but no association was found with total vegetables. No level of consumption could be defined for the associations, because few articles presented risks in grams, servings, or cups. No evidence was found for an association with any specific vegetable or fruit item. In addition, little data is available about disease progression or mortality end points.

Fruits, green leafy vegetables, and soy may protect against all-cause mortality.

August 16, 2010 | Full text

49 articles were found which provided information about 32 different cohorts.
Total fruit consumption possibly protects against all-cause mortality (- 12%), but inconclusive evidence was found for an association with total vegetables. Both green leafy vegetables and soy products possibly protect against all-cause mortality, but the strength of the effect is weak for both foods (- 8%, and - 4%, respectively). Results from the association with soy were confined to publications about Japanese cohorts. Since few significant effects were published in servings/cups/grams over a given time period, it is not possible to define specific amounts of consumption for these effects.

Little evidence was found for a protective effect of vegetables or fruits against total cancer.

August 16, 2010 | Full text

34 articles were found which provided information about 24 different cohorts.
Among men, total vegetables consumption possibly protects against total cancer risk (- 5%). The evidence was restricted to an intermediate level of consumption (235-306 g/d). No evidence was found for an association among women. Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of total fruits against total cancer mortality (- 12%). This effect was found for (almost) daily vs less frequent consumption. No evidence was found for an effect of total fruit with total cancer risk, or total vegetables with total cancer mortality. Smoking status, alcohol drinking, and dietary supplement use may modify these effects, but little data is provided and therefore, no firm conclusions can be drawn. Though current evidence excludes the possibility of a protective effect from fruit consumption against total cancer risk among never smokers.

Protective effects of vegetables & fruits against CVD may be modified by use of multivitamins, carbohydrate consumption, and smoking status.

August 16, 2010 | Full text

85 articles were found which provided information about 43 different cohorts.
Protective effects of both total vegetables, and total fruit consumption were found against most CVD/CHD end points. Fruits, but not vegetables possibly protect against ischemic stroke risk and total stroke mortality. Protective effects of both citrus fruits, and green leafy vegetables were found against all disease risk end points. Protective effects of vitamin-C rich vegetables & fruits were found against CVD risk, and protective effects of cruciferous vegetables were found against both CHD risk and stroke risk. Very little evidence was found for protective effects of specific vegetables or fruits: citrus fruit juice against ischemic stroke risk; both apples and broccoli against CHD mortality among women; and pickles against stroke mortality.
All levels of evidence were low (suggestive-possible). And effects were often restricted to subgroups of the population (e.g., non-users of multivitamin supplements, low-moderate consumers of carbohydrates [≤ 55 en%], or current smokers/nonsmokers).

No evidence was found for an association between dairy or milk, and all-cause mortality.

July 23, 2010 | Full text

32 articles were found which provided information about 22 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an association between total dairy, milk, cheese, yoghurt, (ice) cream, butter, or margarine and mortality. In addition, no evidence was found for a modifying effect of dairy-, milk-, and cheese fat on the association between the related items and mortality. And no evidence was found for a difference in effect between butter and margarine.

No evidence was found for an association between dairy or milk, and total cancer.

July 15, 2010 | Full text

16 articles were found which provided information about 14 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an association between either total dairy consumption, or any specific dairy item (including milk, cheese, yoghurt, [ice] cream, butter, and margarine) and total cancer risk or total cancer mortality. The evidence did not change when cancer risk and cancer mortality were considered one end point.
Also, no evidence was found for effect modification (e.g., by dairy fat), or for a different effect between butter and margarine.

Effects of dairy products on cardiovascular disease might differ between different races.

July 7, 2010 | Full text

50 articles were found which provided information about 29 different cohorts.
Suggestive evidence was found for an increased CHD risk, and for increased CHD mortality (+ 13%) of dairy consumption. The association with disease risk was found among men and at an intermediate level of dairy consumption (237-405 g/day). In contrast, dairy possibly protects against total stroke (- 31%), and suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect against ischemic stroke. Both effects were found at relatively low consumption (≥ 128-296 mg dairy calcium/day).
Milk consumption possibly protects against stroke mortality at consumption ≥ 4-5 times/week (- 20%). High consumption of cheese possibly protects against ischemic stroke risk (- 15%). And suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of high cream consumption among men when CHD- and stroke risk were considered one end point (- 18%).
No evidence was found that margarine is beneficial over butter for CHD, but this was not the case for stroke. Margarine possibly protects against stroke mortality (- 27%) among women at consumption 4-7 times/week, while butter possibly increases risk of intracerebral hemorrhage.
No evidence was found for a modifying effect of dairy-, milk-, and cheese fat on the association between the related dairy items and any end point. But effects may differ by race: The evidence for increased risks was totally restricted to US/European populations. Protective effects of dairy/milk were found among Asian populations, and protective effects of cheese/cream were found among US/European populations.

Hardly any data is available about the relation between egg consumption and total cancer.

July 2, 2010 | Full text

5 articles were found which provided information about 5 different cohorts.
Few associations were found. In addition, in only 2 cohorts were results presented about egg consumption as a categorized variable with at least 3 different, and clearly defined units of consumption. Therefore, it is impossible to examine the possibility of an effect from intermediate levels of consumption. Currently, no evidence was found for an association between any level of egg consumption and total cancer risk or total cancer mortality.

An effect of high egg consumption on CVD may be restricted to subjects with type 2 diabetes.

June 30, 2010 | Full text

23 articles were found which provided information about 19 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an overall association between any level of egg consumption and total CVD risk, CHD risk, stroke risk, CHD mortality, and stroke mortality. However, suggestive evidence was found for an increased heart failure risk (+ 39%) of high egg consumption, and suggestive evidence was found for an increased total CVD- (+ 68%) and CHD risk of high egg consumption (≥ 6-7 eggs/week) among subjects with type 2 diabetes.
Any increased risks were practically restricted to findings from Western cohorts, and any protective effects were practically restricted to findings from Asian cohorts. No other effect modification was found by any variables, including baseline cholesterol levels and hypertension.

Effect of eggs on mortality from all causes may differ between median- and high level consumption.

June 28, 2010 | Full text

14 articles were found which provided information about 11 different cohorts.
Inconclusive evidence was found for an overall association between eggs and all-cause mortality at high vs low consumption. Possible heterogeneity may exist between high- vs median level egg consumption. Suggestive evidence was found for a weak (- 6%) protective effect against death at median levels of egg consumption (1-6 eggs/week), while increased risks were almost restricted to higher consumption.
No consistent difference in effect was found between men and women. High consumption of eggs (≥ 7 eggs/week) possibly increases risk of all-cause mortality among US & European subjects, but the strength of the effect is weak (+ 3%). Also, high consumption possibly increases risk of all-cause mortality among subjects with diabetes mellitus (+ 61%).

Whole fruits and fruit juices may influence risk of type 2 diabetes differently.

February 14, 2010 | Full text

25 articles were found which provided information about 15 different cohorts.
Total fruit possibly protects against risk of type 2 diabetes at an intermediate level of consumption (≥ 156-170 g/day, but ≤ 239 g/day), but no evidence was found for an association with total vegetables. Both green-yellow vegetables, and yellow vegetables are possibly protective, and suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of green (leafy) vegetables and apples.
Potatoes and fruit punch possibly increase risk of type 2 diabetes, and suggestive evidence was found for an increased risk of sweetened fruit juices (at consumption of ≥ 1 drink/day).

No association was found between vegetables or fruits and pancreatic cancer.

January 29, 2010 | Full text

25 articles were found which provided information about 21 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an association between either total vegetables, or total fruits, and both pancreatic cancer risk or pancreatic cancer death. In addition, no evidence was found for an association between any vegetable/fruit subgroup-, or specific item and any cancer end point

Few associations were found between vegetables or fruit and breast cancer.

January 19, 2010 | Full text

64 articles were found which provided information about 41 different cohorts.
Suggestive evidence was found for a weak protective effect of total fruit against breast cancer risk (- 4%), which may be restricted to never users of oral contraceptives. And suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of total vegetables against breast cancer mortality (- 10%). No evidence was found for other associations with total vegetables or fruits, though the effect size for the relation between total fruits and breast cancer mortality was identical to the effect size for total vegetables.
Items from the rosaceae family possibly protect against breast cancer risk, but the effect is weak (- 3%), and none of the specific items in this family was associated with breast cancer. No other associations were found, and no level of consumption could be defined for any of the associations.

Few associations were found between vegetables or fruit and ovarian cancer.

January 14, 2010 | Full text

16 articles were found which provided information about 17 different cohorts.
Overall, few significant effects were described by any article. Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of total vegetables against ovarian cancer risk among women diagnosed at age ≥ 63 (- 16%), and suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of green leafy vegetables against ovarian cancer risk (- 10%). No other evidence for any other association was found. No levels of consumption could be defined for the described associations.

Some vegetable and fruit items may protect against colon cancer risk. No associations were found with rectal cancer.

November 28, 2009 | Full text

51 articles were found which provided information about 32 different cohorts.
Among women, total fruit possibly protects against distal, proximal and total colon cancer risk at different levels of consumption. For total colon cancer, this effect was found at the level of consumption of both 100- < 300 g/day, and ≥ 400 g/day. Among men, suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of total vegetables against total colon cancer risk at an intermediate level of consumption (median of ranges: 336 g/day). For both sexes combined, high vs low vegetables consumption (≥ 200 g/day) possibly protects against distal colon cancer risk. But probable evidence for a protective effect was found at the level of consumption of 200- < 300 g/day among men. No other associations of total fruits or vegetables were found with any cancer end point.
High vs low consumption of bananas (≥ 1 banana/wk) and spinach (≥ 1 serving/wk) possibly protect against total colon cancer risk. Suggestive evidence of a protective effect was found for lower levels of consumption of both items. Suggestive evidence was found of a protective effect of total soy foods with cancer risk, but results were confined to research among Asian populations. Prunes possibly increase total colon cancer risk. The following vegetable items possibly protect against total colon cancer risk at intermediate levels of consumption: peas/lima beans, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts (> 0 to < 1 serving/wk), and tomatoes/tomato juice (1 tomato week to < 0.5 tomato/day).
No evidence was found for any association with rectal cancer, and no evidence was found for effect modification - other than gender - by any of the possible confounders.

Vegetables and fruit do not seem to protect against prostate cancer.

November 28, 2009 | Full text

38 articles were found which provided information about 24 different cohorts.
No evidence was found for an association between either total fruits or total vegetables and any examined end point: total cancer risk, advanced cancer risk, and cancer mortality. In addition, no evidence was found for an association when advanced cancer and mortality are considered as one single end point, or when advanced prostate cancer is stratified in disease stage and grade. No evidence was found for effect modification by confounders of any of these associations.
No evidence was found for an association between tomatoes, tomato juice, or tomato sauce and total- or advanced prostate cancer risk or mortality. The evidence did not change when all tomato categories were combined, or when advanced prostate cancer and mortality were grouped together.
No evidence was found for an association between any soy foods (total soy, tofu, miso soup, or a combination of these 3 items) and any cancer end point. But when advanced cancer risk and cancer mortality are considered one end point, miso soup possibly increases risk. The level of consumption for this effect could not be defined.
Citrus fruit possibly increases prostate cancer risk among white men. Legumes possibly protect against prostate cancer risk at daily consumption of > 71 g/day.

Protective effects of vegetables & fruits against lung cancer are stronger among current smokers.

November 28, 2009 | Full text

61 articles were found which provided information about 31 different cohorts.
Total vegetables possibly protect against lung cancer risk among men (≥ 170 g/day), but not women. This protective effect may be restricted to current smokers, and cancer cases diagnosed at age < 65 years. Total fruits probably protect against lung cancer risk (≥ 127 g/day) among men & women. This effect may also be restricted to current smokers. Suggestive evidence for a protective effect was found of green leafy vegetables and cruciferous vegetables, and among women, citrus fruit is possibly protective (median 7 servings/wk).
Among specific vegetable or fruit items, apples/pears (> apple or pear/wk), oranges/tangerines (> 1 orange or tangerine/wk), tomato sauce and an intermediate level of carrot consumption (0.5-< 1 serving/wk) possibly protect against lung cancer risk. Orange/grapefruit juice probably protects against lung cancer risk at an intermediate level of consumption (24-55 g/day), and a possible protective effect was found with higher consumption. Suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of lettuce (≥ 1.26 servings/week), and tomatoes (≥ 0.5 tomato/day). For lung cancer mortality, no evidence was found for an effect of vegetables. Among men, total fruits are probably protective at (almost) daily consumption, oranges are possibly protective (> 3 oranges/wk), and suggestive evidence was found for a protective effect of citrus fruit.