Data about kale was provided by 4 cohorts. No associations were found with colon (6, 9), rectal (6, 9), or total colorectal (23) cancer risk.
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| Author | Cohort name | Subjects | Years of follow-up | Cases | End point | Consumption of | Relative Risk (RR) | Adjustments | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 23) Lin J. (2005) | The Women's Health Study. | 36,976 women aged > or = 45 years. (USA) | 10 | 223? | Colorectal cancer risk | Kale | Intakes of individual vegetable items were found not appreciably to be associated with colorectal cancer risk (data not shown). | age, randomized treatment assignment, BMI, family history of colorectal cancer, history of colon polyps, physical activity, smoking status, baseline aspirin use, red meat intake, alcohol consumption, total energy intake, menopausal status, baseline post-menopausal HT use, folate intake and multivitamin use. Glycemic load in the multivariate model did not change the overall results. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 9) Voorrips LE. (2000) | The Netherlands Cohort Study. | 62,573 women and 58,279 men aged 55-69. (The Netherlands) | 6.3 (1986-1992) | 578? colon (312 men, 266 women), and 314? rectal (199 men, 115 women) | Colorectal cancer risk | Kale |
RRs are for an increment of 25 g/day. Age, family history of colorectal cancer, alcohol, and items in the cooked vegetable group, raw vegetable group, and fruit group. Total energy intake, smoking, physical activity, and BMI were evaluated as potential confounders. |
6) Michels KB. (2000) | The Nurses' Health Study | & The Health Professionals' Follow-up Study. 88,764 women aged 34-59 and 47,325 men aged 40-75. | (USA) Women: 16 | (1980-1996). Men: 10 (1986-1996) 1,181? | (937 colon cancer [368 men, 569 women], 244 rectal cancer [89 men, 155 women]) Colorectal cancer risk | Kale | Intake of individual vegetables that constitute the composite items was not appreciably associated with colon or rectal cancer risk in women or men (No data data shown). | age, family history of colorectal cancer, sigmoidoscopy, height, body mass index, pack-years of smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, (women: menopausal status, postmenopausal hormone use,) aspirin use, vitamin supplement intake (ever use of multivitamins or vitamins A, C, or E), total caloric intake, and red meat consumption. |
6) Giovannucci E. (1994) | The Health Professionals Follow-up Study. | 47,949 men aged 40-75. | (USA) 1986-1992 | 205? | Colon cancer risk | Kale/chard greens | Of all vegetable items examined individually, none were statistically significantly related to the risk of colon cancer (no data shown). | Age, energy. |
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