| 21) Sauvaget C. (2003) | The Hiroshima/Nagasaki Life Span Study. | 38,540 subjects (14,873 men, and 23,667 women) aged 34-103 who were atomic-bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
(Japan) | 16
(1980-81 to 1998) | 563
(Men: 15 nonsmokers, 47 past smokers, 189 current smokers [< or = 20 cig./day], 94 current smokers [> 20 cig./day], and
Women: 112 nonsmokers, 63 current smokers) | Lung cancer mortality | Green-yellow vegetables containing > 1000 IU carotene/100 g. (such as pumpkin, carrots, spinach, lettuce, asparagus, parsley, etc.) | RR = 0.95 (0.76-1.19;P = 0.6757) for the highest vs the lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 0.98 (0.81-1.18).
(almost) daily: RR = 0.95 (0.76-1.19).
Men. Stratified by smoking status:
| Nonsmokers | Past-smokers | Current smokers ≤ 20 cigarettes/day | Current smokers > 20 cigarettes/day |
RR = 1.28 (0.33-4.97; P = 0.7517) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 0.90 (0.27-3.07).
(almost) daily: RR = 1.28 (0.33-1.97).
|
RR = 0.86 (0.38-1.97; P = 0.8142) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 1.38 (0.69-2.78).
(almost) daily: RR = 0.86 (0.38-1.97).
|
RR = 1.13 (0.76-1.67; P = 0.5385) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 1.06 (0.76-1.48).
(almost) daily: RR = 1.13 (0.76-1.67).
|
RR = 1.06 (0.60-1.87; P = 0.9380) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 0.94 (0.60-1.48).
(almost) daily: RR = 1.06 (0.60-1.87). |
Women. Stratified by smoking status:
| Nonsmokers | Current smokers |
RR = 0.68 (0.41-1.12; P = 0.1207) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 0.75 (0.48-1.16).
(almost) daily: RR = 0.68 (0.41-1.12).
|
RR = 1.24 (0.63-2.44; P = 0.5632) for the highest vs lowest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (serving frequency):
0-1/wk: RR = 1.
2-4/wk: RR = 1.04 (0.59-1.84).
(almost) daily: RR = 1.24 (0.63-2.44). |
fruit, sex, age, radiation dose, city, BMI, smoking status, alcohol habits, and education level. |
| 16) Breslow RA (2000) | The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). | 20,195 US subjects (8,363 men, 11,641 women). | 8.5
(1987-1995) | 158? (90 men and 68 women) | lung cancer mortality | Dark green, yellow, orange vegetables (carrots or mixed vegetables containing carrots; spinach; mustard greens; turnip greens, or collards; sweet potatoes or yams) | No significant association (no data shown). | Age, gender, and smoking (packs per day and duration). The model was run with and without the covariates race, family income, region of the country, occupation, marital status, BMI, and social activities. Final models were performed with and without adjustment for total caloric intake. |
| 6) Hirayama T. (1990) | No cohort name. | 265,118 adults (122,261 men, 142,857 women) aged ≥ 40 from 6 prefectures in Japan. | 17
(1966-1982) | 1,917? (1,454 men, 463 women) | Lung cancer mortality | Green-yellow vegetables (Defined as: containing ≥ 600 mcg carotene/100 g edible parts. Including carrots, spinach, green peppers, Italian broccoli, pumpkin, turnip leaves, green lettuce, chives leeks [green], asparagus, [green], chicory and parsley.) |
Stratified by sex:
| Men & Women | Men | Women |
| RR = 0.85 (90% CI = 0.79-0.93; No P-value) for consumption ≥ 4 vs ≤ 3 times/wk. |
Age-adjusted RR = 1.28 (P = 0.00149) for the lowest vs highest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (≥ 4 times/wk is the reference category):
None: RR = 1.28.
1-3 times/month: RR = 1.25.
1-3 times/wk: RR = 1.17.
≥ 4 times/wk: RR = 1.
This association persisted through different socioeconomic strata. |
RR = 0.87 (90% CI = 0.18-4.24; No P-value) for the lowest vs highest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (≥ 4 times/wk is the reference category):
None: RR = 0.87 (0.18-4.24.
1-3 times/month: RR = 0.25 (0.08-0.75).
1-3 times/wk: RR = 1.22 (1.03-1.44).
≥ 4 times/wk: RR = 1.
Stratified by husband's smoking habit (Age and occupation-adjusted).
Nonsmoker: RR = 1.00 for non-daily vs daily consumption.
Ex smoker/1-19 or cigarettes/day: RR = 1.92 (P = 0.03827) for non-daily consumption (vs RR = 1.28 for daily consumption).
≥ 20 cigarettes/day: RR = 2.38 (P = 0.01288) for non-daily consumption (vs RR = 1.63 for daily consumption). |
Male lung cancer. Stratified by smoking status (reference category = non-smokers in the highest tertile of vegetable consumption):
| Nonsmokers | Smokers 1-24 cigarettes/day | Smokers ≥ 25 cigarettes/day |
RR = 1.97 for the lowest vs highest tertile of consumption.
Amount specific data (≥ 4 times/wk is the reference category):
≤ 3 times/month: RR = 1.97.
1-3 times/wk: RR = 1.37.
≥ 4 times/wk: RR = 1. |
RR = 5.72 for the lowest vs highest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (≥ 4 times/wk is the reference category):
≤ 3 times/month: RR = 5.72.
1-3 times/wk: RR = 5.23.
≥ 4 times/wk: RR = 4.90. |
RR = 12.35 for the lowest vs highest quartile of consumption.
Amount specific data (≥ 4 times/wk is the reference category):
≤ 3 times/month: RR = 12.35.
1-3 times/wk: RR = 8.83.
≥ 4 times/wk: RR = 7.15. |
Lung cancer mortality in smokers approached that of nonsmokers more rapidly after smoking cessation in daily green-yellow vegetables consumers than in non-daily consumers.
Daily consumption of green-yellow vegetables decreased mortality risk among daily meat eaters (daily = defined as: ≥ 4 times/wk).
Confounding and interaction (using multivariate logistic regression analysis).
RRs among men of 4 variables for individual and joint consumption (No 90% CI):
| Individual consumption | Joint consumption |
Cigarette smoking: RR = 4.26 (P = < 0.001).
Meat: RR = 1.63.
Green-yellow vegetables: RR = 0.73.
Alcohol: RR = 1.65 (P = < 0.05). |
Green-yellow vegetables & Smoking: RR = 3.75.
Green-yellow vegetables & Meat: RR = 1.08.
Green-yellow vegetables & Alcohol: RR = 1.28. |
RRs of meat, green-yellow vegetables, and alcohol are for consumption ≥ 4 times/wk. RR of smoking is for daily smoking. No reference groups are defined.
Definitions: Meat (beef, pork, chicken, ham/sausages, and other), and Alcohol (sake, shochu, beer, whiskey, and others).
Men who smoked daily + consumed alcohol and meat daily: Age-adjusted RR = 0.71 (No 90% CI; No P-value) for daily vs non-daily consumption of green-yellow vegetables
(daily consumption is defined as: consumption ≥ 4 times/wk for all dietary items).Not defined (possibly only age).
Age and sex-adjusted for the RRs of associations with men & women combined. |
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